Bet You Didn't Know That The U.S. Marines Fought in Russia in 1919

When the October 1917 Russian Revolution led to the Bolshevik government pulling out of World War One, this presented the Western Allies with a couple of problems. A number of Allied military missions including a four-hundred man Belgian armored car company, a flotilla of seven British submarines operating on the Baltic, technical advisors, liaison officers, two Serbian volunteer divisions, three Polish army corps and a corps sized Czech Legion were trapped in Russia. At first these groups were neutral in the brewing Russian Civil War. They largely abandoned their equipment, turned over their arms, or scuttled their ships, and made for the nearest ports either in the Russian Arctic or Siberia. Often they evacuated just days ahead of advancing Central Powers troops who were pouring into Russia as an occupation army. The three Polish Army Corps (numbering nearly 100,000 men between them), largely disbanded and were granted safe passage to Warsaw by the Germans. A die-hard force fo Poles who refused to surrender (the 4th Rifle Divison of the II corps) fled to the Ukraine where it fought for the White army before being evacuated by the French in 1919 back to an independent Poland. The Czechs Legion,another division of resolute Poles (the 5th), the Belgians and half of the Serbians headed for Siberia to be evacuated there, and the British submariners along with the other half of the Serbs went north. The submariner’s commander, Captain Francis Newton Allan Cromie, was made the naval attaché to Russia and was shot in that capacity outside his embassy by revolutionaries in August.
The Allies landed small groups of British and American naval troops at the arctic ports of Murmansk and Archangelsk in March 1918 to prevent large stores of arms in warehouses there from falling into the hands of the Germans, and to rescue the stranded British submariners and Serbian volunteers. They narrowly held the two ports along with a French artillery unit until a larger force arrived four months later. This force soon found itself engaged with Red Army forces to the south and likewise aided in the formation and training of the White Army of General Miller. This force included 5,760 Americans of the 339th Infantry Regiment with elements of the 85th Division under Colonel GE Stuart; 1,000 British troops that included Royal Marines, the 6th Yorkshire Regiment, The Royal Scots and a Canadian Field Artillery unit; the French 21st Colonial battalion, and token force of Italian, Serbian and free Polish troops. They led a limited offensive towards the south in a failed attempt to link up with the Whites in Siberia before falling back to the ports. The half-hearted allies pulled out of Archangel and Murmansk, supported by a larger force of British troops that were landed in 1919. This included a force of a half dozen large monitors that would fight the 90-vessel rag tag Northern Dvina river flotilla of the Red Navy on Russia's river systems. In the withdrawal from the Dvina River the British Royal Navy scuttled two of their monitors (M25 and M27) that could not escape due to the low water level. Today the M33, last survivor of this river campaign, lies as a museum ship in Portsmouth. The interventionists in all lost more than 400 troops (including 144 Americans) in combat with the Reds in this theater and abandoned the Whites here to their fate by 1920.
In the South, an 8,000-man force of French troops along with a unit of Polish troops formed on the Western front, landed in the black sea port of Odessa December 18, 1918. This did not happen until over a month after World War One ended due to the Black Sea being closed at the Bospherous by German allied Turkey. They were joined in January 1919 by 24,000 Greek soldiers of the two-division Army Corps "A" and elements of the British Royal Navy. Losing men to typhus, lack of mission, and the myriad of hostile forces in the area led to the rapid withdrawal of these units. Most had left by April 1919 when the Reds threatened Odessa. The British navy captured the Russian battleships Evstafiy, Potemkin, Tri Svyatitelya and loann Zlatoust which the German navy had taken over during their occupation. Instead of turning them over to either the Whites or the Reds, the British scuttled them including the destruction of their engineering machinery when they withdrew from Odessa on April 25th 1919. The French and British remained in token forces including a tank company, a marine battalion, and the Royal Scots Fusiliers until their final withdrawal from the Crimea in June 1920. The British Royal Navy battleship, HMS Marlborough, evacuated most of what was left of the Russian royal familiy including the dowager empress, the Tsar's sisters, Rasputin assasin Prince Felix Yussupov, and the Grand Duke Nicholas. The allies suffered nearly a thousand deaths in this theater (including 398 among the Greeks alone)

3rd US Infantry

In the spring of 1861 the Regiment left Fort Clark, Texas, and marched southeast to meet transports that would carry five companies and the headquarters north, and two companies to Florida to garrison Fort Pickens. Three companies were not able to complete their evacuation of Texas and were forced to surrender.




It was not until the spring of 1862 that the companies from Florida joined the Regiment, and shortly after, the attrition and casualties of the first year of the war forced four companies to be disbanded and the men to be distributed to the remaining six. The Old Guard spent the rest of the war as a battalion of six companies. Many of the officers were detached and performed staff duty at brigade and division levels, setting an example in Army administration as the nation struggled to form an army. The senior officer, for a time, was Captain George Sykes of Maryland, Company K.



In July of 1861 the Union advance into Virginia was stopped at Bull Run as the two armies groped and blundered into each other. When the Federal line broke in the afternoon and the routed army began to flee toward Washington, a movement by the Southerners threatened to cut off the retreat. George Sykes, now a major with five companies of the Third, two companies of the Second, and one company of the Eighth Infantry Regiments, marched his ad hoc battalion to a critical ridge near the road to the Stone Bridge. For the only time in the war, the battalion formed a square and successfully defended the ridge and road against infantry, artillery, and cavalry until all units of the fleeing army had crossed the bridge. The battalion then retired in good order to Washington. Fewer than five hundred men had saved the Army and perhaps the Union. When the President came to review the troops at the end of the month, the army commander pointed out the little battalion and said to Lincoln, "These are the men who saved your army!" Lincoln replied, "Yes, I have heard of them."



In May 1862 the Regular Reserve Brigade of the Army of the Potomac was reorganized and the Third Infantry joined the Fourth, Twelfth, and Fourteenth Infantry Regiments to form the First Brigade, Second Division of the Fifth Army Corps. This organization remained, with the addition of the Sixth Infantry in 1863.



There was no further combat by Old Guardsmen in Virginia until June of 1862. The Federal movement up the Virginia Peninsula toward Richmond was repulsed in the Seven Days Battles. At Gaines’ Mill, while holding the Federal right, the Third Infantry was attacked by overwhelming forces and stood its ground to save the line from collapsing. The line was held, but at great cost to the Regiment, including the death of the regimental commander, Major Nathan Rossell, who was the last field grade officer to serve with the unit until the end of the war. The rise in the ground where the combat took place is now called Regular's Hill.



The Old Guard was in heavy combat during the battle of Second Bull Run, deployed as skirmishers in Groveton and then falling back to hold Henry House Hill. The Old Guard had little part to play at Antietam but was deployed at a potentially critical point. At Fredericksburg in December, the Brigade of Regulars was used to hold the town below the heights and the Third Infantry was posted in a tannery. Under continuous shelling, the Regulars were finally deployed in support of the retreat and were the last troops to return to Falmouth Heights on the north side of the river.



After the defeat at Fredericksburg, the Army's new commander took action to boost morale and foster esprit de corps by reorganizing the Army and giving each unit down to division level its own insignia, based on the insignia of its parent Army Corps (soldiers already wore a company letter and a regimental number). The system Major General Joseph Hooker devised figures prominently in the heraldry of the Old Guard. The white Maltese cross was worn by all men of the First Brigade, Second Division of the Fifth Corps, known as the Regular Division. It is the origin of the three crosses on the coat of arms of the Old Guard.



At Chancellorsville in the spring of 1863, the initial success of the deployment to the battlefield was followed by an attack east along the Orange Turnpike spearheaded by the Old Guard and the Regular Division. The successful attack was not adequately supported and the Division withdrew to the Chancellor house. As the day wore on, the Division was sent to secure all of the roads north of Chancellorsville to deny them to the enemy and ensure that the line of communications was kept open. When, after Jackson's attack, the line of communications became a line of retreat, the Army passed through the Fifth Corps elements and re-crossed the river. The Regulars fought a rear-guard action, slowing down the pursuing enemy until the army could successfully return to the north side of the Rappahannock River.



George Sykes, until Chancellorsville the Division commander - the most common term for the Regular Division was "Sykes' Regulars" - was promoted to Fifth Corps Commander. He and two others, William Penrose and William Hoffman, were Third Infantry officers before the war who achieved the rank of Major General. Both Sykes and Penrose had been company commanders in 1860; Hoffman, much older, had been the regimental commander. Command of the Regular Division fell to Romeyn Ayres for the remainder of the war.



The command of the Regiment changed again in the days before the Gettysburg campaign. John Wilkins, senior Captain and commander since the death of Major Nathan Rossell at Gaines’ Mill, was ranked by Captain Henry Freedly, whose parole from his capture in Texas had expired, allowing him to return to active duty. The Regiment entered the campaign as combat ready as any in the division. To a man, they were experienced veterans. Its single shortfall was manpower. More than fifty percent of its officer positions were vacant, and its six companies - with an authorized strength of 576 - had fewer than 300 men present for duty. The casualties of the Regiment were never replaced, and losses from desertion were also significant.

The final combat of the war for the Third Infantry would be at Gettysburg. The campaign leading to Gettysburg was essentially a race between armies. When the troops finally blundered into each other - some of the Southerners simply looking for shoes - there ensued a series of holding actions until the main bodies of the armies could be brought up to the town and deployed. The Federal line was along a ridge in the shape of a fishhook called Cemetery Ridge. At the south end of the line were two hills, Little and Big Round Top. That end of the line faced a small valley - called Plum Run Valley - across which was a rocky outcropping called Devil's Den. North of that, behind a fence, was the Rose Farm, a wheat field, and a road perpendicular to the Round Tops. It was the single most critical piece of land on the south end of the battlefield, because control of the hills determined who would control the battlefield.



The Regular Division, Third Infantry included, reached Gettysburg at 12:30 am on July 2, the second day of the battle, having marched from Falmouth Heights, facing Fredericksburg, in 30 days (including detours to attempt to capture Confederate Colonel John Mosby) by way of the old battlefield at Manassas and passes to the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. In the previous week there had been but one cooked meal. Reveille was at 3:00 am. There was no breakfast. They formed at the right end of the Federal line, near Wolf's Hill, to defend against an assault by Ewell's Corps, which did not occur. Withdrawn to the rear, the Regulars were held in reserve at the center of the Federal line until early afternoon.



During the day, the Third Corps had moved forward of the Cemetery Ridge line to gain and hold a road. The movement had not been coordinated, and by mid-afternoon the Corps formed a salient in the line. The attack of Confederate General Longstreet's Corps, beginning at 4:00 pm, was intended to take control of the Round Tops, smash into the exposed Third Corps line on the Wheatfield Road, and begin to roll up the Federal line along Cemetery Ridge. The attack was stopped by a handful of infantry regiments and artillery batteries on Little Round Top and the Regular Division in Plum Run Valley and at the Rose Farm.



" As we were falling back, we saw the battery officers at the base of [Little Round Top] waving their hats for us to hurry up. We realized that they wished to use canister, so took up the double quick. As I was crossing the swampy ground, Captain Freedly... was shot in the leg, fell against me, and knocked me down. When I got the mud out of my eyes, I saw the artillery men waving their hats to lie low. I got behind a boulder with a number of my men when the battery opened. The Rebels came from all directions for the guns... They waved their battle flags, a dozen being just in front of me [i.e., in his line of retreat, between Page and the base of Little Round Top]. A number [of the enemy] were shot down where we were; they then retreated through the wheat field and the woods."



An eyewitness described the end of the Regular Division:



" The Regulars fought with determined skill and bravery for nearly an hour, then reluctantly fell back as if on drill, but sharply and bravely contesting every foot of ground. These things I saw, and I am glad, as a volunteer, to bear tribute to the United States Regulars."



By the time the Third Infantry reformed and it and the First Brigade watched the darkness fall, the men were able to cook their first hot meal in a week. The losses in killed and wounded would never be made up. Of 300 men present for duty in the Old Guard, including only 12 officers, 74 were killed, wounded, or missing, almost 25 percent of the unit.



The Old Guard had lost two commanding officers in as many hours. The price paid to stop the assault of Longstreet's Corps was even higher in other Regular regiments. The real importance of the sacrifice was that the failure of the Confederate attack, blunted on the Regulars, induced the Confederates to attack the center of the Federal line the next day. Losses in Pickett's Confederate Division would be even higher than those of the Regulars, and the failure of Pickett's attack ended any real Southern hope of winning the war.



The Regular Division, now little more than just a brigade in strength, was to get no rest. By the middle of August, the Regulars, including the Third Infantry, were sent north to New York City. The conscription of men for service in the Army in 1863 was a new event in American history. Begun just after Gettysburg, it was soon followed by protests everywhere and riots in Ohio, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York. The worst of these took place in New York City. Regulars, not subject to the whims of state politics, were sent to quell the riots and enforce the law.



The Third, with the rest of the First Brigade, moved into the lawless areas of the city still wearing the uniforms that they had worn since camped on Falmouth Heights in May. Several days of fighting occurred at barricades in the streets and at buildings fortified by the rioters. In the end they were no match for the Regulars, who were neither inclined nor induced to show much mercy to those who refused to serve in the Army. Finally camped at Washington Park and issued new uniforms - and with the East River handy for bathing - their ragged appearance was soon improved, and they began to enjoy a well-deserved rest.



The combat effectiveness of the Regular Division was gone, and it was reduced in size to a brigade, leaving a small number of regiments to garrison New York Harbor. The rest, including the Third Infantry, returned to Virginia to be put on guard duty on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad, one of the supply routes for Federal troops operating in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. In September, at the beginning of the winter of 1864, Captain Andrew Sheridan, commanding the Third Infantry, sent the following letter to the Adjutant General:

" I have the honor to apply for the relief of the Third US Infantry... from duty in the field and an assignment to some post where they can recuperate and if practicable, recruit.



The Third Infantry, after the trouble in Texas in which three companies and many officers were taken prisoners, have been constantly in the field. Ten companies have been consolidated into six, and the effective command now consists of eight officers (three of whom are now Field & Staff and five upon line duty) and one hundred and fifty-eight rifles."



The Third was relieved from line duty in February; yet, still, their war was not over. Ordered to join the Fourth Infantry as headquarters guard for the Army of the Potomac, the unit served in that capacity for the last three months of the war and was present at the surrender of Lee's army at Appomattox Court House. John Wilkins, commander of the Third after the death of Major Rossell in 1862, made the arrangement as General Meade's guard. In the period of martial law that followed Lincoln's assassination, the Third was retained for a while in Washington as Provost Guard, and was the lead element in the Grand Review of the Army for President Andrew Johnson. The Regiment that had helped save the Army at Bull Run participated in the last act of the war.







The Regular Division received orders to move at 5:00 pm and was sent running to Little Round Top, deploying along the northern slope. At about 6:00 pm the Division was ordered forward through Plum Run Valley to support the Third Corps troops being pushed out of the Rose Farm and the wheat field, and to form a strong point to hold the road. Once they had gained the stone wall, driving off its defenders, the lead elements of the Division and all that followed could not move forward without becoming intermingled with other Federal troops being forced from the field across their front. The Regular Brigades were ordered to lie down in their ranks behind the wall - extending back across to an open ridge - which provided some concealment, a smaller target, and helped to avoid casualties from stray rounds, but they were forced to endure Confederate fire (Benning's Georgians) from Devil's Den on their left.



At 6:30 pm the Regulars of the Second Brigade moved across the wall in formation, colors flying, wheeled to their left, and began to attack the Confederate forces streaming out of the woods. First Brigade, including the Old Guard, held the high ground some yards behind the wall. The Third US anchored the line with the Regiment's right flank open on the road at the right of the Brigade line.



The Regular's attack caused the Confederates to send reinforcements. When they came streaming down the road and into the wheat field, flanking and engulfing the Second Regular Brigade, the pressure at the wall and on the undefended road was too great. The two Regular Brigades were ordered to retire to their old position at the base of Little Round Top.



The Regulars had to fight their way out. The remains of the Second Brigade passed through the First, and both formed into line of battle - under fire - dressed their lines, and began to grudgingly give up the ground they had crossed less than an hour before. The muddy, rock-strewn ground between the hill and the base of Little Round Top was given up only slowly, as the Regulars delivered perfectly timed crashing volleys into the Southerner's disordered lines. The Confederate assault ground to a halt.



The Third Infantry, having the most forward position of the First Brigade in the advance, had the most exposed in the retreat, and was the last to leave the field. When artillery support was brought up to the base of Little Round Top to help slow the Confederate advance and try to save the two Regular Brigades, some elements of the Regiment were caught in the open. Lieutenant John H. Page, who survived to become the regimental commander before his retirement from the army in 1910, wrote later that:

Fremont in the Mexican War

The American settlers in California had revolted against Mexican rule and established (June 1846) the Bear Flag Republic, under John C. Fremont, before news of the war reached them. On July 2, U.S. Commodore John Drake Sloat landed at Monterey. He proclaimed U.S. jurisdiction on July 7 and two days later occupied San Francisco. However, California was by no means under U.S. control. Mexican authority in California was divided between two rivals, Pio Pico in Los Angeles and Jose Castro in Monterey. Following the American landing, Castro headed south, apparently to attempt reconciliation with Pico and resistance to the United States. However, Commodore Robert Stockton, who replaced Sloat on July 23, sailed down the coast and landed troops under Fremont at San Diego and others near Los Angeles. Pico and Castro fled on August 10.

Heavy-handed martial law administration precipitated a revolt in southern California in September. Led by Jose Maria Flores, the rebels had expelled the Americans from Los Angeles and San Diego by the end of October. On Dec. 6, 1846, Kearny, en route to San Diego, met the rebels in an indecisive action at the Battle of San Pascual. Joining Stockton, who had arrived at San Diego, Kearny defeated a rebel band near Los Angeles on the San Gabriel River on Jan. 8-9, 1847. On January 13, Fremont received the final surrender of the rebels and signed the Treaty of Cahuenga. At the end of the month another American expedition, "half naked and half fed," reached San Diego. The remnant of 500 Mormon volunteers under Phillip St. George Cooke, it had marched from Utah to Sante Fe and across scorching deserts in southern New Mexico and Arizona.

After a bitter dispute among Stockton, Fremont, and Kearny, the last established a provisional government in California. With California secure, the U.S. Navy attempted the conquest of Mexican ports on the Pacific, capturing Mazatlan (Nov. 11, 1847), Guaymas (Nov. 17, 1847), and San Blas (Jan. 12, 1848).

www.militaryeras.com


www.spktraining.com 

United States Occupation of Veracruz

In response to the Tampico Affair, President Woodrow Wilson ordered the U.S. Navyto prepare for the occupation of the port of Veracruz. While waiting for authorization of Congress to carry out such action, Wilson was alerted to a German delivery of weapons for Victoriano Huerta due to arrive to the port on April 21. As a result, Wilson issued an immediate order to seize the port's customs office and confiscate the weaponry. Huerta had taken over the Mexican government with the assistance of the American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson during a coup d'état in early 1913 known as La decena trágica. The Wilson administration's answer to this was to declare Huerta a usurper of the legitimate government, embargo arms shipments to Huerta, and support the Constitutional Army of Venustiano Carranza.

The arms shipment to Mexico, in fact, originated from the Remington Arms company in the United States. The arms and ammunition were to be shipped via Hamburg,Germany, to Mexico allowing Remington Arms a means of skirting the American arms embargo.

]Initial landing

On the morning of April 21, 1914, warships of the United States Atlantic Fleet under the command of Rear Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher, began preparations for the seizure of the Veracruz waterfront. By 11:30 a.m., with whaleboats swung over the side, 502 U.S. Marines from the 2nd Advanced Base Regiment, 285 armed Navy sailors, known as "Bluejackets," from the battleship USS Florida (BB-30) and a provisional battalion composed of the Marine detachments of the Florida and her sister ship USS Utah (BB-31) began landing operations. Plowing through the surf in whaleboats toward pier 4, Veracruz's main wharf, a large crowd of Mexican and American citizens gathered to watch the spectacle. The invaders encountered no resistance as they exited the whaleboats, formed ranks into a Marine and a seaman regiment, and began marching toward their objectives. This initial show of force was enough to prompt the retreat of the Mexican forces led by General Gustavo Mass. In the face of this, Mexican Commodore Manuel Azueta encouraged cadets of theVeracruz Naval Academy to take up the defense of the port for themselves. Also, about 50 line soldiers of the Mexican Army remained behind to fight the invaders along with the citizens of Veracruz.

The battle

The bluejackets were instructed to capture the customs house, post and telegraph offices, while the Marines went for the railroad terminal, roundhouse and yard, the cable office and the powerplant. Soon arms were being distributed to the population, who were largely untrained in the use of Mausers and had trouble finding correct ammunition. In short, the defense of the city by its populace was hindered by the lack of central organization and a lack of adequate supplies. The defense of the city also included the release of the prisoners held at the feared San Juan de Ulúaprison. Although the landing had been nearly unopposed, as U.S. forces marched into the city, Veracruz was quickly becoming a battleground. Just after noon, fighting began with the 2nd Advance Base Regiment under Colonel Wendell C. Nevillebecoming heavily involved in a firefight in the rail yards. While the forces ashore slowly fought their way forward, Admiral Fletcher landed the USS Utah's 384 man bluejacket battalion, the only other unit at his disposal. By mid afternoon, the Americans had occupied all of their objectives and Admiral Fletcher called a general halt to the advance, initially hoping that a cease fire could be arranged. That hope however, rapidly faded as he could find no one to bargain with and all troops in the city were instructed to remain on the defensive pending the arrival of reinforcements.

Damaged entryway to a high school adjacent to the Veracruz Naval Academy.

The senior officers of the 1st Marine Brigade photographed at Veracruz in 1914. Front row, left to right: Lt. Col. Wendell C. Neville; Col. John A. Lejeune; Col. Littleton W. T. Waller, Commanding; and Maj.Smedley Butler.

On the night of the 21st, Fletcher decided that he had no choice but to expand the initial operation to include the entire city, not just the waterfront.^[2] Five additional U.S. battleships and two cruisers had reached Veracruz during the hours of darkness and they carried with them Major Smedley Butler and his Marine Battalion which had been rushed from Panama. The battleship's seaman battalions were quickly organized into a regiment 1,200 men strong, supported by the ship's Marine detachments providing an additional 300 man battalion. These newly arrived forces went ashore around midnight to await the morning's advance.

At 7:45 a.m. the advance began. The Leathernecks adapted to street fighting, which was a novelty to them. The sailors were less adroit at this style of fighting. A regiment led by Navy Captain E. A. Anderson advanced on the Mexican Naval Academy in parade ground formation, making his men easy targets for the cadets barricaded inside. This attack was repulsed with casualties, and the advance was only saved when three warships in the harbor, the USS Prairie (1890), San Francisco (C-5), and Chester (CL-1), pounded the Academy with their long guns for a few minutes, silencing all resistance and killing 15 of the cadets inside.

That afternoon, the First Advanced Base Regiment, originally bound for Tampico, Tamaulipas, came ashore under the command of ColonelJohn A. Lejeune and by 5 p.m., U.S. troops had secured the town square and were in complete control of Veracruz. Some pockets of resistance continued to occur around the port, mostly in the form of hit-and-run guerrilla tactics, but by April 24 all fighting had ceased. A third provisional regiment of Marines, assembled at Philadelphia, arrived on May 1st under the command of Colonel Littleton W. T. Waller, who assumed overall command of the Brigade, by that time numbering some 3,141 officers and men. By then, the sailors and Marines of the Fleet had returned to their ships and an Army Brigade had landed. Marines and soldiers continued to garrison the city until the U.S. withdrawal on November 23rd.

Aftermath

U.S. Army Brigadier General Frederick Funston was placed in control of the administration of the port. Assigned to his staff as an intelligence officer was a young Captain Douglas MacArthur.  While Huerta and Carranza officially objected to the occupation, neither was able to oppose it effectively, being more preoccupied by events of the Mexican Revolution. Huerta was eventually overthrown and Carranza's faction took power. The occupation, however, brought the two countries to the brink of war and worsened US-Mexican relations for many years. The ABC Powers conference was convened in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, on May 20, 1914, to avoid an all-out war over this incident. American troops remained in Veracruz until November 23, 1914.The son of Commodore Azueta, Lieutenant José Azueta, was wounded during the defense of the Naval Academy building. A cadet himself, José Azueta was manning a machine gun placed outside the building, facing the incoming American troops on his own and causing a number of casualties. José Azueta was rescued from the battlefield after sustaining two bullet wounds and taken to his home. After the battle, Admiral Fletcher heard of Azueta's actions in battle and sent his personal doctor to take care of him. However, Azueta refused medical services offered by the occupation army and only allowed local Dr. Rafael Cuervo Xicoy to examine him. Dr. Xicoy lacked medical supplies to assist Azueta properly. Azueta died of his wounds on May 10, México's Mother's Day. During his funeral hundreds of citizens marched holding his coffin on their shoulders to the city's cemetery in open defiance of directives from the occupation army forbidding the right of assembly.

After the fighting ended, Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels ordered that fifty-six Medals of Honor be awarded to participants in this action, the most for any single action before or since. This amount was half as many as had been awarded for the Spanish-American War, and close to half the number that would be awarded during World War I and the Korean War. A critic claimed that the excess medals were awarded by lot. Major Smedley Butler, a recipient of one of the nine Medals of Honor awarded to Marines, later tried to return it, being incensed at this "unutterable foul perversion of Our Country's greatest gift"and claiming he had done nothing heroic. The Department of the Navy told him to not only keep it, but wear it.

Boxer Rebellion

Throughout the nineteenth century, China's emperors had watched as foreigners encroached further and further upon their land. Time and again, foreigners forced China to make humiliating concessions. Foreign regiments, armed with modern weapons, consistently defeated entire imperial armies. Now, as a new century was about to begin, Tsu Hsi, empress dowager of the Ch'ing Dynasty, searched for a way to rid her empire of foreign parasites.
Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia all claimed exclusive trading rights to certain parts of China. They were dividing China into "spheres of influence." Some even claimed to own the territory within their spheres. By acquiring the Philippines, the United States became an Asian power too. Now, with a strong base of operations just 400 miles from China, American businesses hoped to take advantage of China's vast resources. The foreign spheres of influence, however, threatened their ambitions.
So while the empress was hoping to close China to foreigners, Americans were looking for a way in. John Hay, now Secretary of State, had an idea. Since public opinion, strained by the Philippines war, would never support the use of force, he decided to negotiate. He sent letters to all the foreign powers and suggested an "Open Door" policy in China. This policy would guarantee equal trading rights for all and prevent one nation from discriminating against another within its sphere.
The nations replied that they liked the concept of the Open Door, but that they could not support or enforce it. Hay's plan had been politely rejected. Nevertheless Hay announced that since all of the powers had accepted the Open Door in principle, the United States considered their agreement "final and definitive."
Empress Dowager Tsu Hsi	Fists of Righteous Harmony While the outside powers bickered over who would control China, Tsu Hsi issued an imperial message to all the Chinese provinces. The present situation is becoming daily more difficult. The various Powers cast upon us looks of tiger-like voracity, hustling each other to be first to seize our innermost territories. . . . Should the strong enemies become aggressive and press us to consent to things we can never accept, we have no alternative but to rely upon the justice of our cause. . . . If our . . . hundreds of millions of inhabitants . . . would prove their loyalty to their emperor and love of their country, what is there to fear from any invader? Let us not think about making peace.
	In northern Shandong province, a devastating drought was pushing people to the edge of starvation. Few people there were thinking about making peace. A secret society, known as the Fists of Righteous Harmony, attracted thousands of followers. Foreigners called members of this society "Boxers" because they practiced martial arts. The Boxers also believed that they had a magical power, and that foreign bullets could not harm them. Millions of "spirit soldiers," they said, would soon rise from the dead and join their cause.
A "Boxer" in 1900	Their cause, at first, was to overthrow the imperial Ch'ing government and expel all "foreign devils" from China. The crafty empress, however, saw a way to use the Boxers. Through her ministers, she began to encourage the Boxers. Soon a new slogan -- "Support the Ch'ing; destroy the foreigner!" -- appeared upon the Boxers' banner.
	In the early months of 1900, thousands of Boxers roamed the countryside. They attacked Christian missions, slaughtering foreign missionaries and Chinese converts. Then they moved toward the cities, attracting more and more followers as they came. Nervous foreign ministers insisted that the Chinese government stop the Boxers. From inside the Forbidden City, the empress told the diplomats that her troops would soon crush the "rebellion." Meanwhile, she did nothing as the Boxers entered the capital.
	Foreign diplomats, their families, and staff lived in a compound just outside the Forbidden City's walls in the heart of Beijing. Working together, they threw up hasty defenses, and with a small force of military personnel, they faced the Boxer onslaught. One American described the scene as 20,000 Boxers
Artillery of International Relief Force to Beijing, 1900	advanced in a solid mass and carried standards of red and white cloth. Their yells were deafening, while the roar of gongs, drums and horns sounded like thunder. . . . They waved their swords and stamped on the ground with their feet. They wore red turbans, sashes, and garters over blue cloth. [When] they were only twenty yards from our gate, . . . three volleys from the rifles of our sailors left more than fifty dead upon the ground. The Boxers fell back but soon returned. Surrounded, the foreigners could neither escape nor send for help. For almost two months, they withstood fierce attacks and bombardment. Things began to look hopeless. Seventy-six defenders lay dead, and many more were wounded. Ammunition, food, and medical supplies were almost gone. Then, shortly before dawn, loud explosions rocked the city. Weary defenders staggered to the barricades, expecting a final, overpowering Boxer attack. But as a column of armed men approached them, they began to cheer. Help had arrived at last.
	After a month of no news from their diplomats, the foreign powers had grown worried. They assembled an international relief force of soldiers and sailors from eight countries. The United States, eager to rescue its ministers and to assert its presence in China, sent a contingent of 2,500 sailors and marines. After rescuing another besieged delegation in Tientsin, the international force marched to Beijing, fighting Boxers and imperial soldiers along the way.
Concise Political History of China, including more about the Empress Dowager and the Boxer Rebellion (Scroll about halfway down the page to get to the section about Tsu Hsi.)	The international troops looted the capital and even ransacked the Forbidden City. Disguised as a peasant, the empress dowager escaped the city in a cart. She returned to the Forbidden City a year later, but the power of the Ch'ing dynasty was destroyed forever.
	Because it had participated in the campaign, the United States participated in the settlement that followed. Hay called for an expanded "Open Door," not only within the spheres of influence, but in all parts of China. He also recommended that the powers preserve China's territory and its government. Other powers agreed, and the Open Door policy allowed foreign access to China's market until World War II closed it once again.

The Air Force Comes Into Existence

On June 20, 1941, Army Chief of Staff Gen . George C. Marshall created the U.S. Army Air Force under Army Regulation 95-5. While that is the official date, the history of the service began  long before 1941.The U.S. Army Signal Corp was first given responsibility for "ballooning, air machines and all kindred subjects," Aug. 1, 1907. It began with one officer, two enlisted men and one civilian. They waited two years for delivery of the first aircraft. March 1913, brought the establishment of the first air squadron in Texas City, Texas. Commanded by then Maj. Benjamin Foulois, the squadron first saw conflict during the infamous Pancho Villa raid in Mexico logging 540 courier and reconnaissance missions. Shortly after the declaration of war for World War I President Woodrow Wilson signed the Aviation Act of 1917, bolstering spending for military aviation. In April of 1918, American pilots recorded their first kill and six weeks later the U.S. Army Air Service was born.

The USAAS was no longer part of the signal corps, rather an independent organization. While its record was impressive during the "Great War," opposition existed to creating a separate Air Force. There was considerable friction within the war department regarding ratio of a separate air component until Congress passed the Air Corps Act July 2, 1926, creating the U.S. Army Air Corp.Foulois was chosen to lead the Air Corp in 1931. As recommended by the Baker Board in 1934, Foulois established General Headquarters, Air Force at Langley Field, Va. The new headquarters was in charge of all tactical units while Foulois continued his charge of providing training and logistics. Army Air Force in World War II By 1938, Germany had become a nation with sizable military power including a particularly modern Air Force known as the Luftwaffe. Gen. Henry "Hap" Arnold was put in charge of the Army Air Corp and watched over its growth as the Luftwaffe led Germany into the second World War.The Luftwaffe changed opinions about air power forever, demonstrating its force against England in the Battle of Britain. In two years, Hap Arnold's Air Corp grew from 21,000 airmen to 354,000. Consequently, so did the number of bases, units and aircraft.

Arnold worked closely with Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall to build up the USAAF. Under the War Power Act of 1941, Marshall was permitted to create the U.S. Army Air Forces June 20, 1941, with Arnold as Chief. In 1942, Arnold's position was changed to Commanding General and subsequently became a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The USAAF was co-equal with the Army Ground Forces and Services of Supply. In addition, Robert Lovett was appointed as the Assistant Secretary of War for Air. Under the direction of Lovett and Arnold, the shape of what is now the modern day U.S. Air Force began to take place. By 1944, there were 16 numbered Air Forces throughout the world.The first four numbered Air Forces were in the United States protecting the eastern and western borders of the nation. The Philippine Department Air Force, which bore the brunt of the Japanese attacks on the Philippines, became the 5th Air Force headquartered in Australia in December 1941. Meanwhile, closer to home, the 6th Air Force was born in Panama in February 1942, and charged with defending the Panama Canal and antisubmarine war. It was previously the Panama Canal Air Force and the Caribbean Air Force. The Hawaiian Air Force became the 7th Air Force in February 1942. The 8th Air Force was headquartered in England flying bombing raids with the RAF Bomber Command. It was activated in February 1942. The 9th Air Force was established in September 1942 and moved to Egypt.India was home to the 10th Air Force which was responsible for operating in China, Burma and India. Formed in Ohio before moving in March of 1942, the 10th became the parent of a small group of American mercenary pilots headed by Brig. Gen. Claire Channault. Channault led the American volunteer group, better known as the "Flying Tigers" on guerilla-style air raids against the Japanese. As part of the China Air Task Force, the Tigers continued to fly missions over the Himalayas known as "the hump" from India to China. In 1942, the CATF was designated the 14th Air Force. Dramatically outnumbered in aircraft, the 14th Air Force disrupted the flow daily of Japanese supplies to China recording a kill ratio of eight-to-one. The 11th Air Force was formed from the Alaskan Air Force to protect the U.S. and Canada and recover the Aleutian Islands from the Japanese. The 12th Air Force was established in August 1942, and immediately moved to England to participate in the North Africa invasion. The 13th Air Force was established in December 1942, and operated out of several locations in the Pacific such as the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, the Philippines, the Marianas, Midway, the Caroline Islands, Iwo Jima, Japan and the Marshall Islands. The 14th Air Force served primarily in China after being established in March 1943. The 15th Air Force was activated in Tunisia, Nov. 1, 1943, and began combat operations the next day. Despite the success of air power, however, the USAAF still struggled for equal status with the other services. In January 1942, Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill created a single unified air command for the Mediterranean Theater. Gen. Carl "Tooey" Spaatz commanded the 12th Air Force and for the first time an air commander was able to use his resources where they were most needed. This proved decisive in the battle over North Africa. Spaatz later became the first Air Force Chief of Staff. With the new Army Air Force structure the importance of air power began to grow. Theater commanders were achieving some success integrating air power into their operation. However, Arnold wanted to demonstrate how important air power is in combat. He formed the 20th Air Force which operated from the Marianas Island. Unlike the other numbered Air Forces, the 20th reported through Arnold directly to the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The 20th Air Force, composed of B-29 strategic bombers, was to break the Japanese empire and set the course for a post-war Air Force. The 20th did in fact change the course of modern warfare with the atomic bombing of  Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Aug. 6 and 9, 1945, respectively.In many ways, World War II was the defining moment for the use of air power. Air power changed  the way war is fought. Many lesson were learned--lessons at the expense of thousands of lives and aircraft lost. These lessons were also the foundation of Air Force doctrine and strategy today. National Security Act, 1947 The success of the Army Air Forces in World War II finally led to President Harry S. Truman signing into law the National Security Act of 1947. The act created the Department of Defense with three "executive departments," the Army, Navy and Air Force. It is appropriate that President Truman signed the documents while flying aboard his presidential airplane operated by the USAAF. The Army Air Corps began the war with more than 2,000 members and a few hundred planes. Five years later, the Army Air Force had nearly 2.4 million airmen and nearly 80,000 aircraft. To this day, it is the largest air force ever assembled. Sean Kling www.militaryeras.com

Finally a Living Medal of Honor Recipient

The military has sent the White House a recommendation to award the Medal of Honor to a soldier for bravery in Afghanistan, which could make him the first living recipient since the Vietnam War.

The Army soldier ran through a hail of enemy fire to repel Taliban fighters in a 2007 battle, saving the lives of a half dozen other men, two U.S. officials said Wednesday. They declined to name the soldier.

There is concern, officials say, that early disclosure could place political pressure on President Obama to approve the medal or could cause embarrassment for the soldier if it's not approved.

The nation's highest award for valor has been awarded only six times in the nine years of war in Afghanistan and Iraq -- and all were awarded posthumously.

That small number has prompted member of Congress to ask the Pentagon to examine its policy for awarding the medal, a process that can take years.