Boxer Rebellion

Throughout the nineteenth century, China's emperors had watched as foreigners encroached further and further upon their land. Time and again, foreigners forced China to make humiliating concessions. Foreign regiments, armed with modern weapons, consistently defeated entire imperial armies. Now, as a new century was about to begin, Tsu Hsi, empress dowager of the Ch'ing Dynasty, searched for a way to rid her empire of foreign parasites.
Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia all claimed exclusive trading rights to certain parts of China. They were dividing China into "spheres of influence." Some even claimed to own the territory within their spheres. By acquiring the Philippines, the United States became an Asian power too. Now, with a strong base of operations just 400 miles from China, American businesses hoped to take advantage of China's vast resources. The foreign spheres of influence, however, threatened their ambitions.
So while the empress was hoping to close China to foreigners, Americans were looking for a way in. John Hay, now Secretary of State, had an idea. Since public opinion, strained by the Philippines war, would never support the use of force, he decided to negotiate. He sent letters to all the foreign powers and suggested an "Open Door" policy in China. This policy would guarantee equal trading rights for all and prevent one nation from discriminating against another within its sphere.
The nations replied that they liked the concept of the Open Door, but that they could not support or enforce it. Hay's plan had been politely rejected. Nevertheless Hay announced that since all of the powers had accepted the Open Door in principle, the United States considered their agreement "final and definitive."
Empress Dowager Tsu Hsi	Fists of Righteous Harmony While the outside powers bickered over who would control China, Tsu Hsi issued an imperial message to all the Chinese provinces. The present situation is becoming daily more difficult. The various Powers cast upon us looks of tiger-like voracity, hustling each other to be first to seize our innermost territories. . . . Should the strong enemies become aggressive and press us to consent to things we can never accept, we have no alternative but to rely upon the justice of our cause. . . . If our . . . hundreds of millions of inhabitants . . . would prove their loyalty to their emperor and love of their country, what is there to fear from any invader? Let us not think about making peace.
	In northern Shandong province, a devastating drought was pushing people to the edge of starvation. Few people there were thinking about making peace. A secret society, known as the Fists of Righteous Harmony, attracted thousands of followers. Foreigners called members of this society "Boxers" because they practiced martial arts. The Boxers also believed that they had a magical power, and that foreign bullets could not harm them. Millions of "spirit soldiers," they said, would soon rise from the dead and join their cause.
A "Boxer" in 1900	Their cause, at first, was to overthrow the imperial Ch'ing government and expel all "foreign devils" from China. The crafty empress, however, saw a way to use the Boxers. Through her ministers, she began to encourage the Boxers. Soon a new slogan -- "Support the Ch'ing; destroy the foreigner!" -- appeared upon the Boxers' banner.
	In the early months of 1900, thousands of Boxers roamed the countryside. They attacked Christian missions, slaughtering foreign missionaries and Chinese converts. Then they moved toward the cities, attracting more and more followers as they came. Nervous foreign ministers insisted that the Chinese government stop the Boxers. From inside the Forbidden City, the empress told the diplomats that her troops would soon crush the "rebellion." Meanwhile, she did nothing as the Boxers entered the capital.
	Foreign diplomats, their families, and staff lived in a compound just outside the Forbidden City's walls in the heart of Beijing. Working together, they threw up hasty defenses, and with a small force of military personnel, they faced the Boxer onslaught. One American described the scene as 20,000 Boxers
Artillery of International Relief Force to Beijing, 1900	advanced in a solid mass and carried standards of red and white cloth. Their yells were deafening, while the roar of gongs, drums and horns sounded like thunder. . . . They waved their swords and stamped on the ground with their feet. They wore red turbans, sashes, and garters over blue cloth. [When] they were only twenty yards from our gate, . . . three volleys from the rifles of our sailors left more than fifty dead upon the ground. The Boxers fell back but soon returned. Surrounded, the foreigners could neither escape nor send for help. For almost two months, they withstood fierce attacks and bombardment. Things began to look hopeless. Seventy-six defenders lay dead, and many more were wounded. Ammunition, food, and medical supplies were almost gone. Then, shortly before dawn, loud explosions rocked the city. Weary defenders staggered to the barricades, expecting a final, overpowering Boxer attack. But as a column of armed men approached them, they began to cheer. Help had arrived at last.
	After a month of no news from their diplomats, the foreign powers had grown worried. They assembled an international relief force of soldiers and sailors from eight countries. The United States, eager to rescue its ministers and to assert its presence in China, sent a contingent of 2,500 sailors and marines. After rescuing another besieged delegation in Tientsin, the international force marched to Beijing, fighting Boxers and imperial soldiers along the way.
Concise Political History of China, including more about the Empress Dowager and the Boxer Rebellion (Scroll about halfway down the page to get to the section about Tsu Hsi.)	The international troops looted the capital and even ransacked the Forbidden City. Disguised as a peasant, the empress dowager escaped the city in a cart. She returned to the Forbidden City a year later, but the power of the Ch'ing dynasty was destroyed forever.
	Because it had participated in the campaign, the United States participated in the settlement that followed. Hay called for an expanded "Open Door," not only within the spheres of influence, but in all parts of China. He also recommended that the powers preserve China's territory and its government. Other powers agreed, and the Open Door policy allowed foreign access to China's market until World War II closed it once again.

The Air Force Comes Into Existence

On June 20, 1941, Army Chief of Staff Gen . George C. Marshall created the U.S. Army Air Force under Army Regulation 95-5. While that is the official date, the history of the service began  long before 1941.The U.S. Army Signal Corp was first given responsibility for "ballooning, air machines and all kindred subjects," Aug. 1, 1907. It began with one officer, two enlisted men and one civilian. They waited two years for delivery of the first aircraft. March 1913, brought the establishment of the first air squadron in Texas City, Texas. Commanded by then Maj. Benjamin Foulois, the squadron first saw conflict during the infamous Pancho Villa raid in Mexico logging 540 courier and reconnaissance missions. Shortly after the declaration of war for World War I President Woodrow Wilson signed the Aviation Act of 1917, bolstering spending for military aviation. In April of 1918, American pilots recorded their first kill and six weeks later the U.S. Army Air Service was born.

The USAAS was no longer part of the signal corps, rather an independent organization. While its record was impressive during the "Great War," opposition existed to creating a separate Air Force. There was considerable friction within the war department regarding ratio of a separate air component until Congress passed the Air Corps Act July 2, 1926, creating the U.S. Army Air Corp.Foulois was chosen to lead the Air Corp in 1931. As recommended by the Baker Board in 1934, Foulois established General Headquarters, Air Force at Langley Field, Va. The new headquarters was in charge of all tactical units while Foulois continued his charge of providing training and logistics. Army Air Force in World War II By 1938, Germany had become a nation with sizable military power including a particularly modern Air Force known as the Luftwaffe. Gen. Henry "Hap" Arnold was put in charge of the Army Air Corp and watched over its growth as the Luftwaffe led Germany into the second World War.The Luftwaffe changed opinions about air power forever, demonstrating its force against England in the Battle of Britain. In two years, Hap Arnold's Air Corp grew from 21,000 airmen to 354,000. Consequently, so did the number of bases, units and aircraft.

Arnold worked closely with Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall to build up the USAAF. Under the War Power Act of 1941, Marshall was permitted to create the U.S. Army Air Forces June 20, 1941, with Arnold as Chief. In 1942, Arnold's position was changed to Commanding General and subsequently became a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The USAAF was co-equal with the Army Ground Forces and Services of Supply. In addition, Robert Lovett was appointed as the Assistant Secretary of War for Air. Under the direction of Lovett and Arnold, the shape of what is now the modern day U.S. Air Force began to take place. By 1944, there were 16 numbered Air Forces throughout the world.The first four numbered Air Forces were in the United States protecting the eastern and western borders of the nation. The Philippine Department Air Force, which bore the brunt of the Japanese attacks on the Philippines, became the 5th Air Force headquartered in Australia in December 1941. Meanwhile, closer to home, the 6th Air Force was born in Panama in February 1942, and charged with defending the Panama Canal and antisubmarine war. It was previously the Panama Canal Air Force and the Caribbean Air Force. The Hawaiian Air Force became the 7th Air Force in February 1942. The 8th Air Force was headquartered in England flying bombing raids with the RAF Bomber Command. It was activated in February 1942. The 9th Air Force was established in September 1942 and moved to Egypt.India was home to the 10th Air Force which was responsible for operating in China, Burma and India. Formed in Ohio before moving in March of 1942, the 10th became the parent of a small group of American mercenary pilots headed by Brig. Gen. Claire Channault. Channault led the American volunteer group, better known as the "Flying Tigers" on guerilla-style air raids against the Japanese. As part of the China Air Task Force, the Tigers continued to fly missions over the Himalayas known as "the hump" from India to China. In 1942, the CATF was designated the 14th Air Force. Dramatically outnumbered in aircraft, the 14th Air Force disrupted the flow daily of Japanese supplies to China recording a kill ratio of eight-to-one. The 11th Air Force was formed from the Alaskan Air Force to protect the U.S. and Canada and recover the Aleutian Islands from the Japanese. The 12th Air Force was established in August 1942, and immediately moved to England to participate in the North Africa invasion. The 13th Air Force was established in December 1942, and operated out of several locations in the Pacific such as the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, the Philippines, the Marianas, Midway, the Caroline Islands, Iwo Jima, Japan and the Marshall Islands. The 14th Air Force served primarily in China after being established in March 1943. The 15th Air Force was activated in Tunisia, Nov. 1, 1943, and began combat operations the next day. Despite the success of air power, however, the USAAF still struggled for equal status with the other services. In January 1942, Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill created a single unified air command for the Mediterranean Theater. Gen. Carl "Tooey" Spaatz commanded the 12th Air Force and for the first time an air commander was able to use his resources where they were most needed. This proved decisive in the battle over North Africa. Spaatz later became the first Air Force Chief of Staff. With the new Army Air Force structure the importance of air power began to grow. Theater commanders were achieving some success integrating air power into their operation. However, Arnold wanted to demonstrate how important air power is in combat. He formed the 20th Air Force which operated from the Marianas Island. Unlike the other numbered Air Forces, the 20th reported through Arnold directly to the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The 20th Air Force, composed of B-29 strategic bombers, was to break the Japanese empire and set the course for a post-war Air Force. The 20th did in fact change the course of modern warfare with the atomic bombing of  Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Aug. 6 and 9, 1945, respectively.In many ways, World War II was the defining moment for the use of air power. Air power changed  the way war is fought. Many lesson were learned--lessons at the expense of thousands of lives and aircraft lost. These lessons were also the foundation of Air Force doctrine and strategy today. National Security Act, 1947 The success of the Army Air Forces in World War II finally led to President Harry S. Truman signing into law the National Security Act of 1947. The act created the Department of Defense with three "executive departments," the Army, Navy and Air Force. It is appropriate that President Truman signed the documents while flying aboard his presidential airplane operated by the USAAF. The Army Air Corps began the war with more than 2,000 members and a few hundred planes. Five years later, the Army Air Force had nearly 2.4 million airmen and nearly 80,000 aircraft. To this day, it is the largest air force ever assembled. Sean Kling www.militaryeras.com

Finally a Living Medal of Honor Recipient

The military has sent the White House a recommendation to award the Medal of Honor to a soldier for bravery in Afghanistan, which could make him the first living recipient since the Vietnam War.

The Army soldier ran through a hail of enemy fire to repel Taliban fighters in a 2007 battle, saving the lives of a half dozen other men, two U.S. officials said Wednesday. They declined to name the soldier.

There is concern, officials say, that early disclosure could place political pressure on President Obama to approve the medal or could cause embarrassment for the soldier if it's not approved.

The nation's highest award for valor has been awarded only six times in the nine years of war in Afghanistan and Iraq -- and all were awarded posthumously.

That small number has prompted member of Congress to ask the Pentagon to examine its policy for awarding the medal, a process that can take years.

60th Anniversary of the start of the Korean War

Several hundred Indian River County residents paused Friday night to pay tribute to veterans of the Korean War by unveiling a new monument at the Veterans Memorial Island Sanctuary near Riverside Park in Vero Beach.

The event, which was sponsored by the newly formed Korean War Veterans Association Chapter IRC 318, featured speeches and patriotic songs, all designed to remember the 60th anniversary of the beginning of the Korean War.

Daniel P. Stanley, a combat veteran of the Korean War, said the event was a fitting tribute to all veterans, no matter when they served.

“We honor everybody who served,” said Stanley. “We know many came before us in World War II and many came after in Vietnam,” said Stanley. “We appreciate all of their efforts.”

Guest speaker for the dedication ceremony was No Kum-Sok, a former North Korean military pilot who defected to the west by flying a MiG-15 to Kimpo Air Base in South Korea. Kum-Sok, who has changed his name to Kenneth Rowe, said he joined the North Korean Navy as a way to train as a pilot, hoping one day that he could fly his way to freedom.

“I thought that as a naval officer, I would have a better chance to escape,” Rowe said.

After defecting to the allies and providing them with a wealth of intelligence information, Rowe, now 78, moved to America and became a U.S. citizen.

After Rowe’s speech, Hobe Sound resident and Korean War veteran Ed Delaney, called out from the audience, saying he was at Kimpo Air Base when Rowe flew his plane to freedom.

“He was only about 21 years old when he did that,” recalled Delaney, who served as a staff sergeant in the U.S. Air Force. “It was a clear day and I remember seeing this plane coming in the wrong way. He was something else.”

Delaney said Rowe’s defection provided the Americans with a significant amount of intelligence information, and he wanted to meet him personally.

“I really feel that the knowledge we gained from the MiG-15 was one of the reasons that the North Koreans didn’t keep fighting,” said Delaney, who is 81. “I wanted to thank him on behalf of the United States Air Force.”

Peter Popolizio, from the Korean War Veterans Association Chapter 106 in Port St. Lucie, said the new monument on Memorial Island is also a symbol of freedom.

“On this very important day, the beginning of the Korean War 60 years ago, we fought for the freedom of the South Korean people,” said Popolizio. “Today, South Korea is a democracy because of our brave men and women who never shunned their duty.”